Overview of Qualitative Research Methods

What is qualitative research ? Qualitative research is a type of scientific research. In general terms, scientific research consists of an investigation that: • seeks answers to a question • systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question • collects evidence • produces findings that were not determined in advance • produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study Qualitative research shares these characteristics. Additionally, it seeks to understand a given research problem or topic from the perspectives of the local population it involves. Qualitative research is especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information about the values, opinions, behaviors, and social contexts of particular populations. What can we learn from qualitative research? The strength of qualitative research is its ability to provide complex textual descriptions of how

Research aims

A distinction is often made between research objectives and research aims. A research aim typically refers to a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear at the end of your problem statement, before your research objectives. Your research objectives are more specific than your research aim and indicate the particular focus and approach of your project. Though you will only have one research aim, you will likely have several research objectives. Why is the research problem important? Having an interesting topic isn’t a strong enough basis for academic research. Without a well-defined research problem, you are likely to end up with an unfocused and unmanageable project. You might end up repeating what other people have already said, trying to say too much, or doing research without a clear purpose and justification. You need a clear problem in order to do research that contributes new and relevant insights Example of a specific research problem A local non-profit organization focused on alleviating food insecurity has always fundraised from its existing support base. It lacks understanding of how best to target potential new donors. To be able to continue its work, the organization requires research into more effective fundraising strategies. What’s the difference between research aims and objectives? A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement, before your research objectives. Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Qualitative analysis of interview data: A step-by-step guide for coding/...

RICH VS POOR MINDSET | An Eye Opening Interview with Robert Kiyosaki

Pandora Papers: The Kenyatta's secret companies

Research Design

Abstract A research is valid when a conclusion is accurate or true and research design is the conceptual blueprint within which research is conducted. A scholar for his research, prepare an action plan, it constitutes the outline of collection, measurement and analysis of data. Research design is not associated to any particular technique of data collection or any particular type of data. When designing research it is necessary that we recognize the type of evidence required to answer the research question in a reasonable way. The purpose, importance and types of research design. Keywords: Origin, Exploratory, Descriptive, Explanatory, Experimental Introduction Research design can be considered as the structure of research it is the “Glue” that holds all of the elements in a research project together, in short it is a plan of the proposed research work. Research design is defined by different social scientists in different terms; some of the definitions are as: according to Jahoda, Deutch & Cook “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for the collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy and procedure”. 2 Research design is the plan, structure and strategy and investigation concaved so as to obtain ensured to search question and control variance”. 3 Henry Manheim says that research design not only anticipates and specifies the seemingly countless decisions connected with carrying out data collection, processing and analysis but it presents a logical basis for these decisions. 4 Zikmund defined as “a master plan specifying the methods and procedure for collecting nd analyzing the needed information”. 5 The definitions stress systematic methodology in collecting right information for interpretations with economy and procedure. In-fact the research design is the conceptual within which research is conducted: 1. The blueprint for the collection. 2. Measurement and 3. Analysis of data. Research design should be based more or less on some methodology the research design should be made once the topic and problem of research have been selected and formulated, objectives have been properly outlined, concepts have been properly defined and the hypothesis have been properly framed. The research design should be able to provide answers of the following reserve queries: 1. What is the study about and, what type of data is required? 2. What is the purpose of study? 3. What are the sources of needed data? 4. What should be the place or area of the study? 5. What time, approximately, is required for the study? 6. What should be the amount of materials or number of cases for the study? 7. What type of sampling should be used? 8. What method of data collection would be appropriate? 9. How will data be analysed? 10. What should be the approximate expenditure? 11. What should be the specific nature of the study? Origins Research design emerged as a recognizable field of study in the 1960s, at first marked by a conference on Design Method at Imperial college, London in 1962. It led to the founding of the Design Research Society (DRS) in 1966. John Christopher Jones founded a postgraduate Design Research laboratory at the University Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (who initiated the 1962 conference) and L. Bruce Scher founded the postgraduate Department of Design Research at the Royal College of Art, London and became the first professor of Research Design. Some of the origin of design methods and research design lay in the emergence after the and world management decision making technique the most fundamental challenge to conventional ideas on design has been the grouching advocacy of systematic methods of problem and the development of design solutions. Herbert Simon (1969) established the foundations for a science of design which would be a body of intellectually tough, analytic, partly formalizable, partly empirical,teachable doctrine about the design process. Features 1. It is a plan that specifies the sources and type of information relevant to the research problem. 2. It is a strategy specifying which approach distill be used gathering and analyzing data. 3. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints. In brief research design must at least contain 1. A clear statement of research problem. 2. Procedures and technique to be used for gathering data or information. 3. The population to be studied. 4. Methods to be used in processing & analysis data. Phases in Research Designing The Research process proceeds in six phases: 1. Specifying the problem/topic to be studied 2. Framing research design 3. Planning a sample (probability or non-probability or combination of the two) 4. Collecting the data 5. Analyzing the data (editing, coding, processing, tailgating) 6. Preparing the report Elements of Design Observation our Measures These are symbolized by an „O‟ in design notation. An O can refer to a single measure (e.g. measure of a body weight), a single instrument with multiple items (e.g. a 10 item self-esteem scale), a complex multipart instrument (e.g., survey), or a whole battery of tests or measures given out on one occasion. If you need to distinguish among specific measures, you can use subscripts with the O, as in O1, O2 & So on. These symbolized will an „X‟ in design notation the X can refer to a simple employment training program. Group:- Each group in a design gives its own line in the design structure if the design notation has three lines, there are three groups in the design Assignment to Group Assignment to group is designed by a latter at the beginning of each time (eg. Group) that describe how the group was assigned. The major types of assignment are: - R = Random Assignment N = Nonequivalent groups C = Assignment by cutoff Time Time moves from left to right elements that are listed on the left occur before elements that are listed on the right. Need for Research Design Research design is necessary because it makes possible the smooth sailing of the various research procedures, thereby creation research as professional as possible, yielding maximum information with a minimum expenditure of effort, time and money. For better, economical and attractive construction of a house, we need a blueprint (or what is a community called the map of the house) prepared by an expert architect, similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for four research projects. Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in the analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the audibility of staff, time and money. Designing the research project may result in rending the research exercise unsuccessful. It is, therefore, imperative that an efficient and appropriate design must be prepared before starting research processes. The research design helps the investigator to organize his ideas in a shape whereby it will be possible for him to look for errors and shortages. Nature of Good Research Design A good research design is regularly characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, and economical. Generally, the design which minimizes bias and collected & analyses is considered a good design. The design which gives the smallest experimental error in supposed to be the best design in many investigations similarly; a design which yields maximal information many different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems. Some of the strategies of good research design are as follows: Theory – Grounded Good research reflects the theories which are being investigated where specific theoretical expectations can be hypothesized these are incorporated into the design. Situational Good research designs make known the settings for the study, this was shown above where a specific need of teacher and administrators was openly addressed in the design plan. Similarly,demoralization, intergroup competition and competition might be accessed throughout the use of the additional comparison group who are not in direct contact with the original group. Feasible Good design can be implemented. The series and timing of events are cautiously throughout. Possible problems in measurement,devotion to project database construction and the like, are predictable. Redundant Good research designs have some flexibility built into them often this flexibility results from the repetition of essential design. Efficient Good research design strikes a balance between redundancy and the tendency to over design.

THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH IS TO

…  Review or synthesize existing knowledge  Investigate existing situations or problems  Provide solutions to problems  Explore and analyse more general issues  Construct or create new procedures or systems  Explain new phenomenon  Generate new knowledge The emphasis of Quantitative research is on collecting and analysing numerical data; it concentrates on measuring the scale, range, frequency etc. of phenomena. This type of research, although harder to design initially, is usually highly detailed and structured and results can be easily collated and presented statistically. Qualitative research is more subjective in nature than Quantitative research and involves examining and reflecting on the less tangible aspects of a research subject, e.g. values, attitudes, perceptions. Although this type of research can be easier to start, it can be often difficult to interpret and present the findings; the findings can also be challenged more easily LONGITUDINAL STUDIES These are studies over an extended period to observe the effect that time has on the situation under observation and to collect primary data (data collected at first hand) of these changes. Longitudinal studies are often conducted over several years, which make them unsuitable for most relatively short taught post-graduate courses. However, it is possible to base short time scale research on primary data collected in longitudinal studies by, for example, government agencies, and focusing research on a close analysis of one or more aspect or elements of this data. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES This is a study involving different organisations or groups of people to look at similarities or differences between them at any one particular time, e.g. a survey of the IT skills of managers in one or a number of organisations at any particular time. Cross-sectional studies are done when time or resources for more extended research, e.g. longitudinal studies, are limited. It involves a close analysis of a situation at one particular point in time to give a ‘snap-shot’ result. CASE STUDIES A case study offers an opportunity to study a particular subject, e.g. one organisation, in depth, or a group of people, and usually involves gathering and analysing information; information that may be both qualitative and quantitative. Case studies can be used to formulate theories, or be: Descriptive (e.g. where current practice is described in detail) Illustrative (e.g. where the case studies illustrate new practices adopted by an organisation Experimental (e.g. where difficulties in adopting new practices or procedures are examined) Explanatory (e.g. where theories are used as a basis for understanding and explaining practices or procedures). FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES Research, from a feminist perspective, focuses on knowledge grounded in female experiences and is of benefit to everyone, but particularly women. In a business context, for example, research might centre on the role of women in an organisation and on their views, roles, influence and concerns. Feminist research perspectives have a number of common starting points. First, that women and their contributions to social and cultural life have been marginalized and that this is reflected in past research practice. Second, that men and male perspectives or norms have dominated previous research. And third, that gender, as a significant factor in understanding the world, has been absent from understandings and interpretations of social phenomena, in favour of other categories, e.g. social class. Feminist perspectives draw attention therefore, to how women or women’s concerns may in previous research have been excluded, ignored or relegated to the periphery. It also raises questions therefore about why some forms of knowledge become or are perceived as more valid than others. GROUNDED THEORY Grounded theory reverses approaches in research that collected data in order to test the validity of theoretical propositions, in favour of an approach that emphasises the generation of theory from data. Theory is generated from observations made, rather than being decided before the study. This approach seeks to challenge research approaches that unwittingly or wittingly look for evidence in the data to confirm or deny established theories or practices; the feeling behind this is that you will often find out in research what you are looking for! But if an open mind is kept, new ways of perceiving a subject or new ways of categorising or applying data gathered may be discovered or advanced. The aim of grounded theory is then, to approach research with no preconceived ideas about what might be discovered or learned. Silverman (1993) summarises the main features and stages of grounded theory: 1. An attempt to develop categories which derive from the data; 2. Attempting then to give as many examples as possible in the categories developed in order to demonstrate their importance 3. Then developing these categories into more general and broader analytical frameworks (or theories) with relevance to other situations outside the research subject.